I also wanted to use this to demonstrate how it applies to current events, in order to get people to think more about these issues on their own. As I was reading through the "logical fallacies" section, I realized how many of them have been used on me. My political leanings certainly show here, but they still illustrate the defining principle.
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| Aristotle |
I think that it's really a shame that this isn't taught in elementary school. It would do a tremendous job of getting people to think independently, rather than just echo popular sentiment.
Was this removed from our education system.... deliberately?
Oh that's right... the people in charge don't want a population of critical thinkers that question them.
As Murray Rothbard said:
"The greatest danger to the State is independent, intellectual criticism."
The Trivium
1) Grammar: The ability to gather thoughts and information into a solid body of knowledge. We might call this "brainstorming" today.
2) Logic: Searching through the body of knowledge, and looking for inconsistencies, falsehoods, or contradictions.
3) Rhetoric: Articulating the idea in a way that makes sense.
The Five Senses
1) Touch
2) Taste
3) Smell
4) Sound
5) Sight
The Quadrivium
This was originally based on math, but it applies to other things as well. As you read it, you will probably notice how it ties into other aspects of life.
It comes from math, because math is a set, fixed, objective science. This is the basis for calculating physics and other hard sciences.
1) Arithmetic: This has to do with the characteristics a number has on its own, outside of time and space.
2) Geometry: This has to do with the symbolism behind a number, and where it comes from. Shapes and symbols can have a deeper meaning than just serving as the amount of something.
3) Music: Numbers as they relate to time, and where natural harmony comes from. Taste in music is subjective I realize, but it has to be formulated in order for people to enjoy it. This is the process behind that formulation.
4) Astronomy: The aspects of numbers as they relate to where time and space meet. Aristotle originally used this to explain planetary phenomena. It has existed into the present day, and is the basis for science.
Logical fallacies
I particularly enjoyed this section, because I realize now how many times these have been used on me in political discussions.
When a person uses one of these on you (or anyone else for that matter), it's a sign that they're trying to make a very weak argument.
1) Ad hominem: In Latin, this means "to the man". It's a personal attack, usually made by the person losing the argument in an attempt to discredit their opponent.
Example:
Me: "I think that Obamacare is bad, because it limits healthcare options and has increased the cost of insurance premiums."
Other person: "You're stupid for thinking that!"
2) Appeal to authority: Looking to an expert isn't a bad thing in of itself, it should just be examined if the person is really an expert, and/or if they have a bias, due to financial or political ties.
Example:
Certain think tanks are paid by various corporate interests, so they put out information that those corporations want the public to hear:
A green energy company pays the think tank to say that people should get away from fossil fuels, and rely on wind, solar, and hydro energy.
Or the reverse is true with a think tank paid by oil companies
3) Appeal to belief: Saying that something is true by pandering to the person's prior prejudices.
Example: Telling a staunch, lifelong Democrat or Republican voter that the country has done better under their respective party.
It's unlikely that they would disagree with that.
4) Appeal to common practice: Believing that something is right, just because lots of people do it.
Example:
Me: "Why do you obsess over the Kardashians?"
Other person: "Lots of people watch the show, and it gives me and my friends something to talk about."
5) Appeal to emotion: I think that this is self explanatory.
Example:
"If he's elected to office, he will make everything fair."
6) Appeal to fear: Again, self explanatory.
Example:
"If we don't implement Obamacare, you won't be able to afford healthcare, and poor people will drop dead in the streets!!"
7) Appeal to flattery: Believing somebody, just because they make you feel good, without examining them or their motives.
Example:
Employee: "Boss, you're really great. I'm so happy to work for you."
Boss: "Oh thank you so much! Here's a raise!"
8) Appeal to novelty: An idea is better, simply because it's new. The Political Left loves to use this in discussions.
Example:
" We need the government to provide healthcare, because we're not living in 1790 anymore."
9) Appeal to popularity: Since most people (at least in contact with the person at hand) believe something, it must be true.
Example:
" The Republicans are only for the rich and the Democrats care about the little guy because my friends told me that."
10) Appeal to ridicule: Dismissing an idea as unworkable or invalid, because others have insulted it.
Example:
" I don't want to promote libertarian or anarcho capitalist beliefs, because if I do, people will make fun of me."
11) Appeal to spite: Dismissing someone or something, because it's unattainable.
Example:
"Yeah... I'll just forget that girl. She wasn't that great anyway."
12) Appeal to tradition: Saying that something is proper, just because it's always (or at least for a long time) been done that way.
Example:
Me: "Why do people feel the need to just jump into college right away after high school, instead of working and figuring out what they really want to do with their lives?"
Other person: "That's just the way it's been done."
13) Bandwagon: Just accepting something as fact, because it's popular within a particular circle.
Example:
Me: "Why are you for higher taxes?"
Other person: "It's because that's what progressives want."
14) Begging the question: This is a form of circular reasoning, popular in discussion involving religion.
Example:
"Allah is God."
"What makes you believe that?"
"We know that from reading the Quran"
"Who read to you from the Quran?"
"Followers of Allah."
"Why do they follow Allah?"
"The Quran told them to."
15) Biased sample: Self explanatory.
Example:
"We need more funding for education, because the bureaucrats in the Department of Education say that we do."
16) Composition: Saying that because something is made of components A and B, the finished product must have the same characteristics as A and B.
Example:
Water is H2O, or two molecules of hydrogen and one of oxygen.
"If hydrogen and oxygen are naturally gases, water must naturally be a gas too."
17) Division: This is the above point, but in reverse. Saying that a component must have the same traits as the finished product itself.
Example:
"Since water is a liquid, hydrogen and oxygen must naturally be liquids too." (They're gases)
18) False causal relationship: Confusing causation with correlation.
In Latin, this is sometimes called "post hoc, ergo propter hoc."
"This happened because of this."
Example: "The rooster crows in the morning, and the sun comes up, so therefore the rooster crowing causes the sun to come up."
19) False Dilemma: Presenting only two options as the solution to a problem.
Example:
If you don't like Obamacare, you want poor people to drop dead in the streets.
If you want the government to be less involved in education, you don't think that people should be educated.
If you criticize modern feminsism, you hate all women.
If you criticize illegal immigration, you hate immigrants altogether.
If you criticize affirmative action, you hate minorities.
It's a false dichotomy.
This zero sum way of thinking is usually embraced as a smear tactic to discredit people whom the attacker disagrees with.
20) Genetic fallacy: A claim is invalid, or should be at least regarded with skepticism, because of where it came from.
Example:
"This college told me that if I go there, I will get a job for sure, and make a lot of money. Their website told me so."
21) Guilt by association: Trying to discredit someone or something, because of someone or something that associates with it.
Example:
" Stephen! How can you like that website?! I read some nasty comments there in the comment section at the bottom!"
22) Middle Ground: This relates to point 19, but in this case its in situations where there only are two choices, and no other alternatives.
23) Pointing at others: Invoking a higher authority as a way to try and avoid responsibiliy for ones own actions.
Example:
"Why did you steal that car?"
"The Devil made me do it!"
24) Repeating statements over and over to make the appear true: The media loves to do this all the time.
Example:
"We need to invade Iraq. They have weapons of mass destruction."
25) Smoke screen: Trying to change the subject, but interjecting a series of unrelated issues. The hope is that the original topic will be forgotten in the process.
Example:
Me: "Why do you vote the way you do?"
Other person: "Steve, how's work going?"
Me: "You didn't answer my question."
Other person: "So are you still friends with Paul?"
Me: "You still didn't answer."
Other person: "I really want to check out your workplace"
Me: "Why won't you answer me?"
Other person: "I'm just wondering how you're doing. We don't have to talk about that."
26) Spotlight: Just because lots of people focus on a topic, doesn't mean that it has only real importance, or even affects them at all. Celebrity scandals are the epitome of this.
Example:
Bruce Jenner becoming a woman.
27) Straw man: A gross mischaracterization of what a person believes, in order to easily discredit them.
This is only able to be pulled off successfully if the target audience is ignorant of the beliefs that they see being misrepresented.
Example:
"Libertarians are so stupid. They believe that regulatory agencies should be dismantled so that companies can make us buy bad products, pollute the environment, and crank out illiterates in our schools."
Something for everyone to think about. As always, I don't want people to just take everything that I say verbatim, but rather think on it, and draw their own conclusions.
Thank you all for reading! More coming soon!
-STK
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